Disclaimer
Rock climbing is an inherently dangerous activity that may lead to serious injury or death. Do not pursue rock climbing and its related activities without proper training and equipment. This website contains information about some of the dangers of rock climbing. It cannot be complete – every day, people figure out new ways to get injured and die while climbing. We make no claims about the accuracy or completeness of the information contained here. Further, this website is not an instructional manual. Your reading and use of this website means you hold us blameless for any injury or death you may suffer while pursuing rock climbing and climbing-related activities.
Rock Climbing Dangers
INTRODUCTION
According to statistics compiled by the American Alpine Club, over the last ten years, there have been on average 29.6 fatalities per year directly related to rock climbing and mountaineering in the USA. There are considerably more accidents reported to the AAC, ranging from minor to major. No doubt there are many more accidents that go unreported. Rock climbing accidents can and do cause life-changing injuries. Many of these accidents and injuries involved experienced climbers who made deliberate, clear-eyed decisions about risk and procedures, and had unfortunate luck. Sadly, many other accidents involved inexperienced or beginner climbers. Periodically, when experienced climbers read about a serious or fatal accident in this inexperienced group, they think to themselves “They didn’t know what they didn’t know”.
There are ample resources available to educate climbers in what they need to know to enhance their safety: instruction from professional guides and experienced mentors, publications like Accidents in North American Climbing, youtube instructional videos, detailed “how-to” and accident analysis threads on Mountain Project, and many other web resources. Books are a great resource: the 33 book “How to Climb” series is a fantastic compilation of knowledge which covers in detail almost all of the knowledge one would need to be aware of in all the scenarios discussed below. And yet incidents which have as their basis a simple lack of critical knowledge continue to occur.
This guide to Rock Climbing Dangers is meant to provide a broad overview of rock climbing dangers for the new and/or less-experienced climber. It is not meant to be a “how-to”, but a succinct description of many of the dangers and failure modes found when climbing. On occasion, you will find a few words on practical suggestions. These are meant only as a “pointer” to possible instruction. Further, this is not a complete list of all the ways that one might be injured or killed while climbing – “climbing is an inherently dangerous sport”. A limited number of web links are provided that will take the reader to examples of injuries and accidents resulting from some of the dangers, and there are also some links for instructional resources for avoiding the dangers. Many more resources can be found with a little searching if you need more information on any topic.
ORGANIZATION OF THE GUIDE TO ROCK CLIMBING DANGERS
There are statistics available about the cause of climbing accidents, and naturally, these show that some activities are inherently more dangerous than others, and are the root cause of more fatalities. Rappelling and leader falls are often at the top of the list of most dangerous activities. One way to structure this guide would be to discuss the activities in order of highest percentage danger. We are not doing that because so many accidents have multiple contributing factors. For example, fatalities and accidents resulting from lead falls may have contributing factors of runouts between gear, poor rock quality, leader mental state, and the placed gear pulling during a fall.
More importantly, statistics are no comfort to you, the individual, or your family and friends, when an accident occurs. No one says “Even though he died, I’m comforted by the fact that rope cutting accidents are quite rare.”
As an example of why statistics are no comfort, review the information linked below, about a very rare accident that resulted in a fatality on an easy trad route:
seneca-rocks-accident:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/124721273/seneca-rocks-accident-85
For this reason, we are structuring this guide in the following order:
We will begin with a brief discussion of the connection between the climber’s attention (or lack of attention) to the task at hand, and accidents.
The next two sections discuss objective and subjective dangers. Then we will cover in order: dangers of approaches, dangers of ascending (both leader and follower), dangers with anchors and at anchors, dangers with descents, dangers at cliff top and finally, rope cuts.
We are including dangers among three predominate types of rock climbing: traditional climbing – single pitch and multi-pitch, sport climbing – single and multi-pitch, and top-roping. Dangers of soloing, TR soloing, lead soloing, simul-climbing, bouldering, and climbing involving snow and ice are beyond the scope of this article and will not be discussed.
BEING PRESENT; PAYING ATTENTION
To begin at the beginning of what factors contribute to accidents, look inward. Climbing requires focus and attention.
This concept is explored in a number of places. The article “Staying Alive” by John Dill, the climber and NPS ranger who for many years headed up Yosemite SAR, is well worth a read in this regard. He discusses “state of mind” as a key factor for safety. (He also touches on many of the other topics discussed below.)
http://dev.supertopo.com/topos/yosemite/stayalive.pdf
Another useful thing to learn is the concept of “inattentional blindness”. This has been described as “looked but failed to see” errors – when we fail to notice something obvious that is right in front of our eyes.
Inattention blindness: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inattentional_blindness#:~:text=Inattentional%20blindness%20or%20perceptual%20blindness,any%20vision%20defects%20or%20deficits.
Bob Gaines has a good section on inattention blindness in his book “Rock Climbing: the AMGA Single Pitch Manual”.
OBJECTIVE HAZARDS
Objective hazards are hazards which are inherent to the environment, such as rock fall and weather. Although one cannot exert direct control over these types of hazards, the decisions the climber makes about this type of hazard will determine to a large degree the risk to which one will be exposed. In this section we cover rock fall, rock failure and weather.
Rock – Breakage/Movement
Climbers should educate themselves to the type of rock and to its salient physical properties in the climbing area they are using. Most guidebooks have this description in the introduction. Some examples are:
- Some types of sandstone become very weak when wet
- Some basalt can be very “slippery” and hold gear less well
- Some limestone can be quite “brittle” and breakage may cause gear failure in a fall
- Some granite edges can be razor sharp and cut rope of people in a fall
Rock failure can result in lead falls and, less commonly, anchor failure. Climbers experience rock failure while leading in a variety of circumstances, such as:
- a hold or entire rock feature detaching under hand or foot pressure
- gear pulling because of rock failure under lead fall forces (either climber gear or anchor gear)
Experienced climbers are always alert to signs of bad, fractured or hollow rock, and have learned how to assess this. Rock failure is a not uncommon contributing factor to climber injury and fatalities.
Here is an example of a fatality which locals attributed to the rock quality of the area basalt:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/120440355/climber-death-taylors-falls-mn
There have been two fatalities on the Tahquitz route Sahara Terror that were attributed to loose rock. This peak exists in a higher altitude environment and the rock is subject to freeze/thaw cycles which contribute to fracturing:
http://www.supertopo.com/climbers-forum/2446363/Tahquitz-Death
This fatality at a local sport climbing area occurred when an entire section of rock detached from a route:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/124630228/rock-fall-accident-at-riverside-rock-quarry
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/120759743/gunks-fatality-saturday-may-22nd
Rock – Rock Fall
Certain climbing environments are prone to danger to climbers and bystanders due to rocks falling from above. Sometimes this rock fall is a spontaneous event, but quite often rock from above is caused by climbers pulling off fractured pieces of rock, or knocking rock off ledges. Wearing a helmet is generally a smart decision and can save your life.
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/122716646/twin-sisters-wizards-gate-rock-fall-death
Light vs. Dark
It will be obvious to even the newest climber that approaching, climbing, and descending in the dark will be more difficult and more dangerous than during daylight hours. Timing considerations are especially critical with multi-pitch routes. Newer climbers need to learn how to estimate their team’s speed and make the calculations about approach, climbing, and descent times.
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/121791176/know-your-descent
Weather
Although weather is technically an objective danger, in reality, climbers have significant control over weather dangers because they can consult easily available weather reports. With this knowledge, they can exercise common sense and good decision making. Nevertheless, weather-related incidents can happen even to the best prepared and very careful climber:
- A gorgeous day on the ground in the sun can equate to hypothermia 300 feet up, in the shade, with a good wind.
- Desert heat can dehydrate and incapacitate those unaccustomed to its intensity.
- Thunderstorms can move in earlier than forecast, from an unseen direction and with amazing speed, with associated intense cold rain and lightning.
Weather risks are greatly increased on multi-pitch climbing. Often, the higher up one gets, the more difficult it becomes to extricate oneself from a dangerous weather situation. Mistakes are more likely to occur when people are hurrying to escape dangerous weather conditions. Thus weather is a common contributing factor to climbing accidents and fatalities.
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/122824768/thunderstorm-broken-ankle-on-pear-buttress
SUBJECTIVE HAZARDS
Subjective hazards are hazards over which one can exert direct control.
Choice of Partner
Beginning and inexperienced climbers may not fully appreciate that their choice of partner is a life or death decision. Before you put yourself in someone else hands, whether as a lead climber or a second, it is imperative to understand the competence and experience level of your climbing partner. In this age of internet partner hookups, it is good to realize that people may misrepresent or outright lie about their skills. Communication is essential and due diligence is highly advised.
Probably the biggest cause of injury due to partner choice occurs when the partner is an incompetent or inexperienced belayer. This aspect is discussed in more detail below under Danger to Leader – Belayer Error.
Communication
There are a surprising number of incidents where miscommunication has resulted in serious and fatal accidents. The most common of these is a climber being taken off belay, when they thought they were still on belay. Fatal ground falls can be the result. Always have a plan with your partner before you leave the ground. Confirm it before the climber leaves the ground or belay. When verbal communication will be difficult (noisy, windy, long distances), have an advance plan (such as never removing the belay until the rope comes tight) or use rope signal techniques (not fool-proof) or use walkie talkies. Perhaps because multipitch trad climbers are often in situations where they are out of sight of their partners, there is more of a habit and practice of communication systems in this type of climbing. It seems like these miscommunication accidents happen more frequently in sport climbing areas, where fixed anchors and lower-offs are much more common than in trad climbing.
Rebecca Ryan miscommunication accident:
Personal Equipment Failure
Personal Equipment Failure – Soft Goods
Soft goods critical to safety in climbing include ropes, harness, slings and accessory cord. Soft goods can fail as a result of degradation due to age, sun, exposure to chemicals due to storage conditions, and even animals chewing on them. Slings or cord on gear, such as cams or slung hexes, is subject to the same consideration. Self-tied knots on gear should be inspected before each use to make sure these have not loosened in transit.
Soft Goods – Age: All soft goods decay slowly with age over time. Most soft goods manufacturers recommend retiring all soft goods at a maximum of around ten years, even if minimally used. In reality, equipment such as ropes, used frequently, need to be retired from use much more frequently. Wear and tear contributes to a decrease in physical strength of the soft good. Soft goods should be regularly inspected for signs of wear.
Overview of dangers to ropes:
Perhaps the most famous fatality due to simple age/wear and tear:
http://www.supertopo.com/climbers-forum/1933713/Todd-Skinners-failed-harness-update
When to retire a rope discussions:
https://www.rei.com/learn/expert-advice/when-to-retire-climbing-gear.html
Soft goods – Sun: Soft goods decay can be greatly accelerated if the soft good is exposed to the natural environment, especially sun exposure. This is discussed more below in the section on anchor failure.
Soft goods – Chemical damage
Soft goods are very sensitive to damage due to chemical contamination. Acids of various kinds, such as car battery acid, are particularly dangerous, not just by direct contact but by fumes in an enclosed area. Be very careful where you store your ropes and other soft goods. Garages are frequently used to store items not used daily, but your climbing gear is much safer when stored inside under controlled temperature and away from damp conditions. Do not lay your soft goods on the ground in a garage or parking area as these surfaces can be contaminated and the contamination transferred to your gear.
Chemical contamination discussions:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/111028547/broken-rope-fall-in-gym
https://www.blackdiamondequipment.com/en_US/stories/experience-story-qc-lab-acid-harness
Personal Equipment Failure – Misuse or Failure to Use
Accidents and injuries have occurred in the following circumstances:
- Helmet not worn (rockfall, discussed above and lead climbing falls, discussed below)
- Harness not fitted properly (not adhering to manufacturer’s instructions for use)
- Harness not doubled back (not applicable to many modern harnesses)
- Mistaken use of non-rated gear loop of harness (only a few models of harness have rated gear loops)
- Rope tie-in – knot not completed (discussed below)
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/119469447/tommy-dutra
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/119626801/climber-fatality-at-rumney-925
The list above is not a complete list of possibilities.
DANGERS ON THE APPROACH
Experienced hikers will be quite familiar with dangers encountered on the approach to climbs. However, more recently, more new climbers are transitioning from gym to the outside environment and may not have this hiking background. Be aware that serious injuries or even death can result from failure to appreciate environmental dangers:
- Venomous snakes
- Killer bees
- Loose talus
- Sharp rocks and other objects
- River and stream crossings
- 4th and easy 5th class terrain
- Other dangers not listed
For climbers interested in top-roping, their biggest danger is often on the approach to a fixed anchor, or to the top of the cliff to build and anchor. See below for Dangers at Cliff Top.
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/121450347/lcc-death
DANGERS ASCENDING
Dangers Ascending – Rope Tie-Ins
Before a climber leaves the ground, partners should do a “buddy check”, to make sure that all wanted personal equipment and gear are present and in good working order (helmets, PAS, protection, etc.). Most importantly make sure that the leader’s rope is knotted properly into their harness, and that the other end of the rope is either knotted or tied into the other climber properly.
Rope tie-in accidents:
Do not tie into your harness with a temporary, uncompleted knot as a convenience when moving a rope. This has resulted in ground falls when the leader has forgotten to retie a proper knot:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/124789749/preventable-accident-in-maple-canyon
Dangers Ascending – Followers
Following is typically a fairly safe activity, but followers (top-ropers and seconds) have been injured in the following circumstances:
- Rope stretch after falling (see below)
- Mistakes at anchors (see below)
- Falling on a traverse and swinging
- Hit by object falling from above
- Bad belaying
- Other dangers not listed
Leaders are typically focused on the danger to themselves should they fall when leading, but they also need to be aware that the follower can be exposed to lead fall conditions when they are following a traversing pitch. Falls during a traverse result in a pendulum swing. These can be dangerous if the resulting swing aims the follower at a rock feature like a big corner. The leader should try to protect the route to mitigate these dangers as best as possible for the follower. Sometimes protection is not possible and both leader and follower need to be aware of “do-not-fall” situations.
Routes chosen for top-roping need to be analyzed with the same perspective. If the line of travel from the ground to the anchor is not a fairly straight line, it is best practice to rig some kind of directional protection, if there is any danger of a fall causing a swing into a rock feature.
Another dangerous situation can occur when the leader has surmounted a roof to gain the anchor. The follower falling below the roof can cause the rope to come under tension on a the roof edge – which may be a sharp edge. Ropes can be cut under these circumstances. Special attention needs to be paid by the leader in these scenarios.
Dangers Ascending – Leaders
Most of the risk in climbing is incurred by the leader. Almost all of this risk occurs when the leader takes a lead fall. Lead falls run the spectrum of safe (although no fall is ever 100% safe) to deadly. Many climber take hundreds of falls per year and never suffer an injury. Some climbers have climbed for decades and never suffered an injury from a fall. Yet lead falls are statistically one of the most dangerous aspects of climbing. It is critical for climbers to understand the contributing factors that compound the chance of a lead fall causing an injury. It is vital for the climber try to assess, before starting up a route and in the moment, what circumstances might distinguish a safe fall from a dangerous fall. Almost everything described below relates to circumstances under which lead falls can cause injury or death.
Danger to leader – Route Information
It may seem obvious, but leaders should make sure they are starting up the route they want to do. It is surprisingly easy, in areas with high formations and complex ground terrain, to be in the wrong location. Reliance on web resources like Mountain Project, which often lack photos or topos of approaches and routes, rather than guidebooks, is increasingly common and contributes to this issue. Guidebooks can and do have errors.
While on the route, pay attention to stay on route. It is not uncommon on multi-pitch routes for travel to take complex paths. Many injuries have occurred when the leader got off route and found themselves in more difficult climbing terrain, or in sections of bad and loose rock.
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/124402558/serious-accident-in-kenya-lessons-questions
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/122845119/crestone-traverse-fatal-fall
Danger to leader – belayer error
Belayer error has resulted in innumerable injuries to lead climbers. Here is a partial list of things your belayer should understand:
- paying attention/no distractions
- proper use of their belay device
- rope diameter considerations
- where to stand when belaying and why
- anchored vs. non-anchored belaying considerations
- rope stretch considerations, both near the ground and higher on the route
- soft catch technique
- when a soft catch is contraindicated
- when a hard catch is dangerous
- lowering issues (rope length dangers)
Here is just one example of many accidents caused by belayer error:
http://www.supertopo.com/climbers-forum/3039244/Accident-in-the-Owens-Gorge-yesterday
Danger to leader – misuse of belay device
There are now at least a dozen good belay devices on the market. Each of these has their own detailed instruction manuals for proper use. Yet accidents continue to occur because users either have not read the instructions for their device, did not understand what they read, or choose to ignore recommended usage. The most common mistake is the failure to keep a brake hand on the rope. Users of assisted braking devices are sometimes of the mistaken opinion that these are devices are guaranteed to give a no-hands brake. Another danger arises when users have not understood the rope diameter specifications for their device, and how rope diameter affects catching a fall.
No hands on rope Gri-Gri slippage:
Danger to leader – Rope stretch
Lead ropes used for climbing are dynamic ropes: they are engineered to stretch when they feel the force of a falling climber. This elasticity distributes the energy generated by the fall, decreasing the force on the rope itself, the protective gear, the belayer (if belaying directly off harness), and most importantly, the falling climber. Rope stretch can be used to the climber’s advantage when used to assist in a “soft catch”, but it has also resulted in injury to falling climbers in various circumstances. The most common cause of injury with rope stretch occurs near the ground, when stretch results in a ground fall, but rock impact (and injury) due to rope stretch also occurs with climber impact onto rock features and ledges. A fall from above a roof onto a sloping ramp below the roof is an example of one such scenario. Rope stretch near the ground and above features that can be hit should be taken into account for top-ropers and seconds as well.
Links:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/105947476/information-about-mike-mcglynns-accident
Danger to leader – improper belayer stance
Improper stances when the leader is starting up the route can compound the issues of rope stretch near the ground. Belayers need to use simple math to understand where they need to stand, and how to manage the rope, in order to keep the leader off the ground in the event of a fall. At the start of any route, the belayer standing well away from the base of the route, with a big loop of rope, is a recipe for disaster for the leader in the event of a fall or a botched clip. Do the math to estimate how much rope is in the system between you and the leader. Add to that the amount the rope will stretch (typically 25-30%). Add to that how far into, or up, the cliff face you will be pulled in the event of catching a lead fall. Good belayers are thinking about these issues every time the leader starts up a pitch. Belay stance can, and often should, be adjusted once the leader is out of the ground fall zone. Belay stance is a consideration for both sport climbing and gear-protected routes.
Danger to leader – Catch technique
Modern climbing literature and internet climbing posts are full of descriptions of the importance of a “soft catch” to minimize the risk of a lead climber getting injured in a fall.
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/113625669/soft-catch-vs-hard-catch-video-analysis
Some considerations that newer climbers need to learn:
- Having a big loop in the rope does not equate to a soft catch and is incorrect belay technique. A “gentle smile” of rope is typically plenty of rope slack to prevent short-roping your leader. In certain circumstances, the belayer should have as little rope out as possible.
- Rope slippage through a belay device at the moment of impact provides a natural soft catch, and the amount of slippage is different for different devices.
- Applying soft catch technique is not automatically the best type of catch for all types routes and can endanger the leader by increasing the length of the fall.
- Weight differences between leader and belayer changes the force of the catch. An untethered lighter climber on the ground will be giving a heavier climber a soft catch in the event of a fall, even with a non-slipping device like a Gri-Gri and no slack out, because they will be pulled off the ground when the impact force of the fall occurs.
Catch technique is a complex topic and is an important discussion between leader and belayer in new partnerships.
Danger to leader – ground falls
Ground falls are arguably the most injury producing types of lead falls. Leaders take ground falls where they did not expect to, because of gear pulling, rock breakage, bad belays etc. It is important for the leader to be aware of what circumstances might lead to them taking a ground fall, and to protect as best as possible for that scenario.
On sport climbs, a fall combined with rope stretch can easily result in a ground fall for the first 1 or 2 bolts (sometimes even 3 bolts up). Leaders need to assess the landing zone and make smart decisions that take into account the route rating and their own skill level. Cruxes can and do occur low to the ground. Stick clip devices can be valuable tools – especially in these dangerous, potential ground fall situations.
On trad climbs, when down low, if a leader has any uncertainty about their ability, they should err on the side of caution. A smart approach is to protect where needed to prevent ground falls and double up on marginal gear in critical places near the ground.
Here is an example of a tragic accident which led to paralysis, when a climber fell down low, pulled a piece of gear, and impacted the ground:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/117694099/leader-fall-at-echo-crag-in-nh-8242019
Ledge falls can be the functional equivalent of ground falls. Many of the leader considerations pertaining to ground falls can and should be applied, if the route’s path crosses a ledge.
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/118030172/clear-creek-canyon-accident-on-playing-hooky
Many other ground fall accidents are linked in the section of gear pulling.
Danger to leader – draw/carabiner error
Simple mistakes involving quickdraws and carabiners have been reported to cause accidents. Among the many things about draws and carabiners the leader should understand:
- Proper gate direction relative to travel (to prevent rope unclipping in the event of a fall)
- Avoiding back clipping (to prevent rope unclipping in the event of a fall)
- When to use a locking carabiner on your draw (in critical places)
- The use of alpine draws rather than dogbones so that a gate does not sit on rock feature
- The use of alpine draws to prevent rope drag which can contribute to a fall
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/117956400/broken-biner-sport-climbing-and-broken-foot
Danger to leader – short falls on sport routes
Before the onset of sport climbing in the 1980s, a common climber adage stated “the leader must not fall”. After the development of hard, steep, closely bolted routes, a new mantra appeared – “if you’re not flying, you’re not trying”. In reality, falls on easy sport routes, which may be less than vertical and have numerous opportunities for impact, can often lead to injuries.
Newer climbers coming out of a gym environment may assume that all short falls are safe. In reality, knowing how to fall is a learned skill. Unexpected falls may turn your body in unusual positions that lead to injuries:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/123575179/what-did-i-do-wrong
Danger to leader – gear pulling:
Many newer climbers know nothing about different types of bolts and make an assumption that bolts never fail. While it is rare for a bolt to break or pull from the rock under the force of a lead fall, this can occur, typically with older equipment. Bolts pulling tends to be more common with older bolts, and/or in soft rock such as sandstone. Hangers breaking can be more common in more metal-corrosive environments such as near the sea.
A much more common scenario is for climber-placed gear (nuts, hexes, cams, tricams) to pull under the force of a lead fall. This is one of the most common contributing factors to injurious and deadly falls. Type and quality of rock is an important consideration in the integrity of the placement. The size of the piece also contributes to potential lack of stability, since the contact area is decreased.
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/121931630/feeling-like-i-had-a-near-death-experience
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/120105925/30-ft-ground-fall-at-pilot-mountain-nc
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/119360895/fatal-fall-in-gunks-yesterday
Danger to leader – Gear breaking:
All gear is manufactured to withstand specific maximal forces. Climber should educate themselves about gear strengths, and equally importantly, forces generated in a fall.
Here is a link to an accident which involved gear breaking and a ground fall:
Danger to leader – runouts
Except in the circumstances already discussed (of hitting the ground, hitting a ledge, pulling a piece, rock breaking, bad belay), the distance between protection pieces determines the length of the leader fall. As a broad generalization, the longer the fall, the greater the chance of injury, and this is especially true on easier, lower angle routes with many rock features. Distance of a fall is one of the most common factors cited in serious climbing injuries and deaths. It is always wise for the climber to have an understanding of how inherently runout a climb will be. For strictly bolted routes, this means understanding the bolt spacing. For trad or mixed routes, this means understanding how much gear placement will be an option, and what the nature of the placements will be (bomber vs. sketchy, bullet-proof rock vs. less reliable rock). Guidebooks and online resources will often give the route a PG, R or X rating to describe the inherent runout factor, in addition to the difficulty rating. There is no disputing that for many experienced climbers, runouts are part of the appeal of climbing, and pose no barriers for them. But newer climbers should always make careful decisions about inherently runout routes based on their own skill level and risk tolerance.
Runouts on Bolted routes:
With routes where the only protection available are first ascent placed bolts, the leader can typically assess beforehand how run out the route will be. Guidebooks and online resources will often give the route a PG, R or X rating in addition to the difficulty rating, but if this information is lacking, the leader should not automatically assume that a route is closely bolted.
Runouts on Gear-protected routes:
With the inventions of cams, options have increased for placing more gear on trad routes that used to be very difficult to protect. Large cams provide the ability to protect wide cracks, completely parallel cracks are now much more easily protectable, and microcams give more protection options in small cracks. It is often up to the leader to decide how runout they choose to make the climb. Choose wisely.
Some examples if injuries and deaths from falls:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/106971160/accident-in-red-rocks-oak-creek-112510
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/107305448/shattered-talus-report-analysis
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/124268138/another-fatal-accident-in-bcc
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/122334462/another-grand-junction-climbing-death
Danger to leader – rope failure
Once of the most rare occurrences in climbing is a rope completely cutting in a lead fall. It is useful for climbers to review accident reports to understand the circumstances that can lead to ropes cutting. Rope failures are discussed in more detail below.
DANGERS AT THE ANCHOR
Anchors can be categorized as either fixed anchors or anchors constructed in-situ. Anchor accidents for both categories can be divided into two types: accidents resulting from anchor misuse and accidents resulting from anchor failure.
Fixed anchors come in a variety of flavors, including but not exclusive to:
- Bolts with chains
- Bolts with cold shuts or “open shuts”
- Bolts with fixed carabiners or mussy hooks
- Bolts with rams horns
- Bolts with cord, +/- rap rings
- Tree or rock looped with rope or cord, +/- rap rings
- Fixed pins only (very uncommon outside of the alpine or big wall environment)
Fixed anchors, as is inherent in the name, remain in place on routes. As such, they are subject to age and deterioration considerations. Anchors constructed by the climber in-situ are not fixed, and are removed after use.
Numerous resources regarding anchors and anchor construction are available. As a great example see:
http://falcon.com/books/9780762782079
Anchor misuse (general):
Inexperienced climbers, who have not had proper instruction, can easily make mistakes with serious consequences at anchors.
One common failure mode involves miscommunication with the belayer. As was discussed above, the climber should discuss what will happen at the anchor with their belayer before they leave the ground. The options will vary depending on if one is doing a single pitch route or multipitch route, if one plans to lower and belay the second from the ground or if one plans to bring the second up to the belay. In situations with noisy environments it is essential to have either a plan that will not alter, or to have a means of communicating clearly. Communication beyond shouting includes things like rope signals, or walkie talkies, or cell phone calls.
Another common failure mode at anchors involves actions involved in changeovers, including but not limited to:
- Forgetting to clip or choosing not to clip into the anchor with a PAS
- Using a PAS that can unclip (not redundant, not locking)
- Not weighting the anchor to test while still secured before lowering
- Not weighting the system to test while still secured, before rappelling
New climbers should have expert-attended instruction at anchors of various types before they attempt to use or descend from any anchor alone. People responsible for the safety of newer climber should never underestimate the mistakes a new climber can make in these unfamiliar situations:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/124090137/11yr-old-climber-falls-at-smith-rocks
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/119088502/accident-at-dl-yesterday
Anchor misuse – Fixed Anchors – mussy hooks
Many climbers remain unaware that mussy hook anchors, which are non-locking and typically installed with gates aligned facing outward, have a failure mode which can and has resulted in several deaths.
Under circumstances of twists or kinks in the rope, or climber moving above the hooks, the rope can become completely unattached from the anchor. This same failure mode was well known for their now rarely seen predecessor, the cold shut (aka open shut). The climber and climber’s rope should always remain positioned directly below the hook. Mussy hooks are meant for convenience in lowering, not for top-roping. If you toprope directly through the mussy hooks, you run the risk of the rope detaching.
As in all lowering and rappelling situations, it is imperative to weight test the security and set-up of the lower or rappel before removing your backup tethers.
Links:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/125127969/sand-rock-october-14
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/125056143/mussy-hook-climbing-accidents
Anchor misuse – Fixed Anchors – carabiners, chains, rams horns
All fixed gear that will be lowered or rappelled from should be inspected for sharp grooves created by wear and tear. For safety, do not lower on sharply grooved mussys, carabiners, chains, or rams horns. Use your judgment about rappelling with the rope through sharply grooved fixed gear. When in doubt, leave your own carabiners.
Even locking carabiners can have failure modes – consider if redundancy of a locking carabiner could be important in any particular situation:
Fixed Anchor failure
Fixed anchor failure on anchors with a bolted-construction base only rarely comes from issues with bolts themselves, or with complete failure of a worn chain or carabiner-type component. Anchors with cord or sling of all types – through bolts, around rocks and trees are much more prone to complete failure because of soft goods decay or deterioration. Inspect these very carefully, and if there is any doubt about their integrity, leave your own gear to back up the questionable sling/cord.
Experienced climber Tina Fiori was killed at the end of a day with friends, when she trusted a sling anchor for a rappel:
Two climbers died on Tahquitz when the anchor they were both attached to failed under body weight due to age/sun damage. In this accident, weather was a compounding factor:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/123142420/fatal-accident-at-tahquitz-today
Animals can and will chew or peck at soft goods left unattended over time. Certainly this occurs more frequently outdoors, but it also happens when indoor rodents are searching for nesting materials. The greatest danger is at fixed anchors with sling or cord.
https://thebmc.co.uk/damage-to-fixed-anchors-at-shorn-cliff
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/124811390/partial-failure-dyneema-sling-anchor
Anchor failure – anchors constructed in-situ
Self-constructed anchors are often required at the top of single pitch trad routes and at the top of a pitch on a multi-pitch route. In-situ anchors can be constructed solely from the climber’s own rope or cord and carabiners (using trees or rocks), or from a combination of trad gear and rope/cord (using cracks).
Complete anchor failures have occurred under as little force as the body weight of a lowering or rappelling climber. At the other end of the spectrum, anchors have failed from the high forces generated by leader falls.
The most obvious failure mode arises if the anchor is not constructed correctly. Anchor construction is arguably the most complex learned skill in climbing.
A number of acronyms have been used to describe the way to construct safe anchors. One of the most commonly used of these is SERENE: Strong, Equalized, Redundant, Efficient, No Extension. For a review see:
https://americanalpineclub.org/news/tag/SERENE
Many books and videos on anchor construction are available, for example:
Self-constructed anchors have failed due to these factors, among others:
- Small trees uprooting
- Anchor rocks moving
- Rock used for anchor construction breaking
- Insufficiently strong gear/gear pulling
- Use of a single sling without a masterpoint, cut by falling rock
- Force of lead fall onto anchor exceeding the anchor strength
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/123871222/calico-basin-accident
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/123994798/thoughts-on-recent-fatal-accident-at-calico
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/119095717/quad-anchor-failure
DANGERS DESCENDING
There are a number of great resources available for free and for purchase on the complex topic of getting down safely. Here is one comprehensive and excellent book that is well worth the money:
https://www.andy-kirkpatrick.com/shop/view/down
Lowering – rope length
Both climbers should be responsible for communicating about the length of the rope used on routes. Tragically, climbers continue to be killed every year because of rope length mistakes. “Closing the system” is a simple and (almost) guaranteed way to prevent these mistakes.
Accidents have occurred when a climber is being lowered with a rope that is not long enough for them to get to the ground:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/125375984/accident-1117-first-pullout
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/124412896/death-at-the-city-of-rocks
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/123447483/accident-at-banana-belt-owens-river-gorge
Lowering – soft on soft
Beginners may not understand that the friction of soft on soft, such as a rope against a sling material anchor, can melt the soft good, causing failure.
Lowering – loss of control
Climbers have been decked in lowering situations when belayers have lost control over the belay device. See above: know your partner; know your devices.
Rapelling – rope length
Rappelling mistakes are a leading cause of climbing fatalities. One common failure mode occurs when the climber raps off the ends of rope, having mistaken the length of the rappel. Another failure mode occurs when the rope is long enough but the center point is not at the anchor, either because of error or rope movement that can occur while rappeling. Knotting the ends of the rope will usually prevent these types of accident but knots can and do come undone. It is important to always be paying attention to the location of the ends of your rope when rapping:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/118054457/indian-creek-the-wall-accident
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/124979280/incident-at-mazama-goat-wall
Care needs to be taken when rapping fixed lines, where the length and integrity of the rope has not been pre-inspected:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/125033470/fatality-on-the-nose-92823
Rapelling – device/transition mistakes
Various errors in the set up of the rappel have killed a number of climbers. In general, many of these errors can be discovered by the simple habit of remaining backed-up to the anchor with your choice of tether and then weighting the rap rig. However even this step is not a guarantee. Sometimes mistakes have been made at other links in the chain. Get in the habit of surveying every step in the rappel process, including:
- Anchor integrity assessed
- Rope properly though anchor
- Center point of single rope at anchor
- With two ropes, knot tied and dressed properly
- Rope properly inserted into rap device
- Carabiner placed into correct part of harness
- Carabiner locked
- Third hand assembled and tested (if used)
- Anchor weighted before removing PAS
It’s still not clear exactly what went wrong in the accident discussed below, but this thread has a number of informative comments:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/123005960/rock-canyon-ut-belay-accident
In this incident, the knot holding the ropes together came undone:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/120689097/fatal-rappel-in-calenques-france
Single strand rappels using biner blocks will not be discussed.
Simul-rappel technique will not be discussed.
DANGERS AT CLIFF TOP
Climbers can sometimes be less vigilant than needed at the top of and near the edges of cliffs. People have died when rocks on top have crumbled, or even just by slipping and losing their balance on sand, “ball bearings”, plant debris, etc.. Other accidents have occurred when climbers were trying to get to anchors to set up a top-rope, or when building an anchor for top-roping.
Reference:
Although this accident did not happen after climbing, the person involved was a legendary climber, and the death shows how dangerous a cliff top can be:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/123781105/ammon-mcneely-rip
Dangers in walk-off descents
The great sage Yogi Berra once said “it ain’t over ‘til it’s over”.
Many climbing descents involve 4th and easy 5th class terrain. Even 3rd class gullies can be treacherous. Don’t let your guard down. It’s sometimes safer to leave climbing shoes on until easier ground is obtained.
DANGERS ASCENDING AND DESCENDING: ROPE CUTS
Except for unroped soloing, all fifth class climbing uses dynamic ropes, either single, double or twin. Under specific circumstances and rare occasions, a rope can be severed when it contacts a sharp edge (usually a rock) under tension. Either the lead climber or the follower can be affected. Keep alert to potential rope cutting environments and situations. Here are some of the possible scenarios:
- Rock falls onto the rope
- Follower weights a rope that is running over a sharp edge
- Leader fall causes the rope to tension over a sharp edge
- Leader fall pinches the rope between the cliff face and a carabiner.
An example of a severed rope:
https://www.mountainproject.com/forum/topic/119605000/cannon-cliff-accident-on-920
Some uncommon failure modes
https://www.cs.unm.edu/~moret/jane_death.html
Climbing Dangers 